Political+and+History+and+Traditions


 * __There are five main political trends present throughout Nigeria's history:__**

(1) **Ethnic and Religious Rift** (LP) Since its independence, Nigeria has been a country marked by intensified divisions along ethnic and religious lines. The area of present-day Nigeria was given to Great Britain during the Berlin Conference and was seemingly created out of thin air, encompassing various tribes and ethnicities. Primarily, the Islamic **Hausa-Fulani** dominate the northern region, the **Ibo** (or **Igbo**) the east, and the **Yoruba** the west. In order to govern effectively, the British government exploited these divisions, looking to local leaders, such as tribal chiefs (even creating ones where they did not exist), for administrative power. These ethnic identities continued once Nigeria gained its independence. Ethnicity remains a source of pride (in an individual’s tribe), but more importantly a source of division: each tribe views politics as a **zero-sum game**, meaning that one tribe’s political gain is at their own tribe’s loss. Attempts at making a constitution Political leaders are viewed mainly in terms of their ethnicity and decisions made by the government are constantly seen as having ethnic underpinnings: the first attempt at a country-wide census fell apart because of widespread fraud by each ethnic group and each time the country has tried to reconstruct its constitution the effect each provision will have on each ethnic group has been the underriding concern of the delegates. The polarizing ethnic rift in Nigeria has made governing nearly impossible. The religious rift in Nigeria has played an equally divisive role in the political history of the country. Hundreds of years before the British appeared in Nigeria, the northern Hausa tribes and Kingdoms came in contact with traders from the Middle East. These traders introduced Islam to the north, and Islam eventually replaced local tribal customs and religions. However, in the southern and western regions, the British spread Christianity. This split has created political problems similar to those caused by the ethnic rift: each side fears that if the other gains too much power, they will impose their customs and beliefs on everyone. For example, as a protective measure, the north ensured that their enforcement of Muslim **shari’a law** in some states would be constitutionally protected and also created specific appellate courts where cases relating to shari’a law could be decided.

Good to Read: "Christian-Muslim Mayhem in Nigeria Kills Dozens" ([]) This brief New York Times artcle provides several firsthand accounts of an incident of religious fighting in northern Nigeria.

Watch: "Symposium on Relgious Conflict in Nigeria: Session 2: Contemporary Religious Dynamics in Nigeria (Video)" ([]) Various researchers discuss the current religious situation in Nigeria (NOTE: this video was created in 2007)

(2) **__Tenuous Transitions into Democracy__** (LP) Despite recent and frequent periods of military rule, Nigeria’s political tradition of democracy runs deep. Before the British arrived, the tribes in present-day Nigeria, especially the Igbo and Yoruba, were committed to the principle of **accountability**, the idea that rulers were responsible to their people and that they should seek the advice and act in the best interest of their people. After independence, Nigerians experimented with a parliamentary democracy, in which political parties would form a coalition in parliament which would then elect a prime minister. However, ethnic tensions made it difficult to for political parties (which were created along ethnic lines) create majority coalitions and made it even more difficult for the prime minister to assume much power (not to mention legitimacy). In 1979, in an attempt to create an effective government, Nigeria created a new constitution with a presidential system in which the legislature and president (and judiciary) are independent. Though ethnic divisions have always permeated the political parties of Nigeria, the recent elections of 1999, 2003, and the most recent one in 2007 (in which power passed between two democratically elected individuals for the first time) have increased the legitimacy of the Nigerian democracy in the international community. The political tradition that has gone hand in hand with democracy is that of federalism. Traditionally, especially in more rural areas, local tribe leaders have retained much political power. This federal system, in which the local tribes are committed to democracy and accountability, has been a constant driving force for democracy in Nigeria. However, in the current political environment, the federal system has many downsides. Because the states are largely divided along ethnic lines, this system has also served to increase ethnic division. Furthermore, due to the country’s sporadic authoritarian rule, the question remains of the actual sovereignty of the individual states.

Listen to: "A Blow For Nigerigan Democracy" ([]) One electoral observer breifly discusses her various views of the Nigerian democracy (regarding electoral fraud, Nigeria's youth, the personalization of power, etc). (NOTE: she presents the situation in a //bit// less optministic fashion than that presented in the Wood packet and textbook)

3.) The Legacy of Colonialism (HZ) The British colonization of Nigeria featured indirect rule, especially in the north. Local chiefs and leaders ruled but the colony was exploited for British economic interests. They exploited natural resources like palm oil and did not focus on creating a sustainable economy. Though Nigeria was previously producing enough food for the people, the British introduced cash crops, starting the food shortage that is now a serious problem for Nigeria. The British also provided few social services and the one area they did impact, education, was unevenly accessible and created a separate elite. Colonization also established seeds of corruption; the British gave individual chiefs great power and made them responsible to the British and not the people. Nigerians became accustomed to a system where citizens accept actions of rulers and those in government are motivated by personal benefit. Colonization also helps explain the current ethnic, religious, and regional rifts. The British spread Christianity, which clashed with Islam and traditional religions. Ethnic identities intensified into three groups: Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yaruba. The British took advantage of these divisions and set the groups against each other and the anti-colonization movement used ethnic identities and nationalism. After independence, though, people lost the common cause of independence and conflicts arose. research: http://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/students/curriculum/m7b/activity3.php //Frederick Lugard, the first British governor of northern Nigeria. helped established precedent that the colony should serve Britain's interests//.

4.) Corruption (HZ) Corruption is a severe problem for Nigeria and a great obstacle to poverty alleviation and development. At every level of government, it is the norm for public officials to be bribed, both a result and cause of poverty. Abacha, who ruled Nigeria until 1998, smuggled such a large amount that his family is estimated to still have $3 billion in offshore accounts. It has drained much of Nigeria’s finances and aid money, preventing effective governance and taking away legitimacy. In the 1980s, for example, the IMF told Nigeria they could only receive loans if they accepted policy changes. Corruption is also strongly tied to oil, where companies often bribe officials for access to reserves. In this way, and by taking away attention from other sectors of the economy, oil has ironically harmed Nigeria’s stability. Corruption prevents the government from helping its poor, developing their economy, creating stability, and ruling effectively since a culture of corruption puts personal welfare over community considerations in government. Obasanjo, who was in 1999 has said that he is strongly against corruption, but this trend is deep-rooted and complex. Despite some officials’ commitment to anticorruption campaigns, Nigeria is still one of the most corrupt countries (ranked 154th most corrupt out of 160). Research: []



//The current acting president, Goodluck Jonathan, plans to tackle corruption, though challenges to combating corruption remain great// [] 5.) Authoritarian/Military Rule (HZ) In the colonial era, the British gave chiefs authority and made little effort to respond to the people’s interests. Since independence in 1960, there have been several military dictatorships. The first military ruler was Agiyi Ironsi who promised civilian rule. However, some viewed his leadership as a Igbo conspiracy and killed him in a coup that sparked the Biafran Civil War (1967-1970). Another period of military rule followed a coup by Muhammadu Buhari who greatly restricted civil liberties. A third period of military rule started in 1994 when Sani Abacha declared himself president and persecuted many. Nigeria’s history of coups (there have been five) and military regimes, along with chaos and violence, make democracy difficult to establish. Recently, there have been trends towards democracy. Research;  http://www.photius.com/countries/nigeria/government/nigeria_government_military_interventio~10020.html []